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Problem Behavior Maintained by Multiple
         Sources of Reinforcement

                          David M. Wilson
                    The University of Florida

Functional   analysis methodology is   an assessment tech-
nique that identifies sources of reinforcement for problem
behaviors and facilitates the development of interventions
that are highly individualized. The results of a functional
analysis will   generally indicate that problem behavior is
maintained by: (a) social-positive reinforcement such as
attention, (b) social-negative reinforcement such as escape
from instructional demands, or (c) automatic reinforcement
(sensory- or self-stimulation). A number of reports have
presented data indicating that problem behavior may be
maintained by more than one source of reinforcement, a
situation   referred to as one   involving multiple control.
For example,   problem behavior may be maintained by
access to attention under one set of antecedent conditions
but by escape from task demands under a different set of
conditions (Day, Horner, & O’Neill, 1994).
Multiple control poses challenges to both assessment and
treatment. For example, assessment results showing an
undifferentiated pattern of responding across all test condi-
tions   may be suggestive of   maintenance by automatic
reinforcement. However, such a pattern poses difficulty in
interpretation because   other   functions such   as social-
positive or social-negative reinforcement may be “masked”
and cannot be ruled out. Thus, a possibility that must be
considered is that problem behavior is maintained by more
than one source of reinforcement, in which case interven-
tion may require different treatment procedures for the
same problem behavior depending on the context in which
it occurs. Furthermore, intervention procedures appropriate
for one    behavioral function   may exacerbate   problem
behavior having other functions. This review summarizes
research on   problem   behavior   maintained   by multiple
control and suggests strategies for assessment and treat-
ment.

              Assessment
Multiple control should   be   considered   when problem
behavior occurs in more than one assessment condition of
a   functional analysis (Day et al., 1994; Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994; Iwata, Pace et al.,
1994); Iwata, Pace et al., 1994).   For example, Iwata et al.

Early research on the functional analysis of    problem
behavior   focused on the development of methods to
identify   common   sources of reinforcement (such as
attention or escape) and on the refinement of learning-
based    interventions for   these   behavioral    functions.
Current work has begun to address increasingly complex
questions at both ends of   the research-to-application
continuum, as evidenced by the review and featured
articles contained in this issue.
One of the more complicated questions in the area of
behavior disorders is how to recognize situations   in
which an individual’s problem behavior is maintained
by   more   than   one   source   of   reinforcement   and,
subsequently, how to develop an effective intervention.
The   review   article   in   this   issue   suggests several
strategies for   assessment and treatment of   behavior
influenced by “multiple control.”
The featured article addresses a more general question
related to application: to facilitate implementation   under
naturalistic conditions. Mueller et al. (2003) describe a
systematic sequence of procedures that included assess-
ment, treatment, and the evaluation of social acceptabi-
lity, which illustrate a nice model for consultant-teacher
collaboration in typical classroom settings.
Review topics planned for future issues include:
• Analysis of Response Classes
• Antecedent Events and Behavior Disorders
• Elopement
Starting with the   next issue   (2004, Vol. 13, No. 1),
Self-Injury Abstracts and Reviews will be available   to
subscribers in   electronic format (Adobe Acrobat PDF
file), which will reduce the time to receipt by several
weeks. To take advantage of this option, send your
email address to the Managing Editor (see below).

                                         Brian Iwata

Van Camp, C.M., Lerman, D.C., Kelley, M.E.,   Roane, H.
S., Contrucci, S.A., & Vorndran, C.M. (2000). Further
analysis of idiosyncratic antecedent influences during the assess-
ment and treatment of problem   behavior. Journal of   Applied
Behavior Analysis, 33, 207-221.
Recent   research   findings   suggest that    idiosyncratic
variables   can   influence the   outcomes of   functional
analyses (E. G. Carr, Yarbrough, & Langdon, 1997). In
the    present   study,   we       examined     idiosyncratic
environment–behavior   relations   more   precisely   after
identifying stimuli (i.e., a   particular   toy   and   social
interaction) associated with increased levels of problem
behavior. Two children, an 8-year-old boy with moderate
mental retardation and a 5-year-old boy with no develop-
mental delays, participated. Results of functional analyses
for both children indicated that idiosyncratic antecedent
stimuli set the   occasion for occurrences of problem
behavior (hand biting or hand flapping) and that problem
behavior persisted in the absence of social contingencies.
Further   analyses were conducted to identify specific
components of the stimuli   that   occasioned   problem
behavior. Treatments based on   results of the   analyses
successfully reduced self-injury and hand flapping. For
reprints: Dorothea Lerman,   Psychology   Dept.,    236
Audubon Hall, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA
70803
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               Featured Article

Mueller, M.M., Edwards, R.P., & Trahant, D.(2003).
Translating multiple assessment techniques into an
intervention selection model for classrooms. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 563-573.

Translating current   research to   school-based clinical
practice   highlights issues not   often   encountered   in
laboratory settings. With   the assistance of a consultant,
teachers    conducted   functional analyses, brief multi-
element treatment comparisons, and controlled treatment
evaluations under naturalistic conditions in the classroom.
Teachers   also provided input on    treatment selection.
Treatment integrity data collected throughout the study
suggested   that   teachers   implemented   analyses   and
treatments with high integrity.   The functional analysis
outcomes combined with effectiveness and acceptability
data led to   the selection of interventions that reduced
problem behavior in the classrooms for each of 3 children.
For   reprints: Michael   Mueller, May South, 1770 The
Exchange, Suite 140, Atlanta, GA 30339

Teaching Teachers Principles of Applied
Behavior Analysis for the Classroom

                Stephen T. North
          The University of Florida

Classroom-based   interventions,   in addition to being
effective, should be practical that they can be   imple-
mented   with   relative   ease,   minimize   disruption   of

ongoing   classroom activities, and allow   the teacher to
simultaneously address other students’ needs.   Limitations
in any of these areas decrease the likelihood that teachers
will implement prescribed interventions.
Mueller, Edwards, and Trahant addressed these issues by
illustrating   a model in which   teachers    conducted
functional analyses and treatment evaluations in the class-
room, and provided input on treatment selection. Partici-
pants were 3 first-grade students whose previous func-
tional analysis results indicated that their problem behaviors
were     maintained   by   negative   reinforcement.    Each
participant’s teacher was trained to implement all proce-
dures throughout the study. The teachers first conducted
functional analyses   comprised of attention, escape, and
control conditions to identify functions   of   participants’
problem behavior. Second, teachers conducted preference
assessments to identify back-up reinforcers to be used in a
token program. Next, teachers conducted brief treatment
comparisons of   differential   negative   reinforcement of
alternative behavior (DNRA), differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior (DRA), and non-contingent reinforce-
ment (NCR)   and then rated treatment acceptability   on
Intervention Rating Profiles   (IRP-15), which were used
to select one of the interventions for further evaluation.
Results of he brief treatment comparisons indicated that
all interventions were effective in reducing problem
behavior but   that DRA and NCR   were slightly more
effective than DNRA for 2 of the 3 participants. However,
results of the IRP-15 indicated that the teachers rated only
DRA as an acceptable intervention. Results from the brief
treatment comparisons and   IRPs-15 led to the selection
of DRA for further evaluation for 2 of the 3 participants
and NCR for the third, which, again, were highly effective
in reducing problem behavior. Furthermore, the teacher
who previously rated NCR as unacceptable rated it as
acceptable following the extended evaluation phase.
This study has important implications for extensions of
applied behavior analysis to inclusive   classroom settings.
The results illustrate the benefits of training teachers to
implement functional analyses in the classroom, which may
increase   the likelihood that teachers could   themselves
identify effective interventions in the future. The results
also suggest that teachers may prefer interventions based
on positive reinforcement rather than those involving nega-
tive reinforcement or punishment.
One limitation of the study was that it focused on
problem behavior maintained only by negative reinforce-
ment (escape from demands); it is unclear whether similar
results would be obtained with problem behavior having
different functions (i.e., access to attention or tangible
items).   Additionally, evaluation of the model's utility in
developing interventions for more severe problem behavior
(e.g., self-injury or aggression) seems warranted.

              ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

disruptiveness   (grouping variable). Although predictors
of attendance (SES, single-parent status, child IQ) did
not differ across high- and low-disruptive groups, predic-
tors of   outcome   were   moderated by level of child
disruptiveness for academic achievement and aggression
outcomes, but not for social competence. Higher atten-
dance in the Summer Program was associated with higher
child social competence at Year 3 for all children. For
academic achievement, higher attendance in the Summer
Program   was associated with higher scores for mild/
moderately disruptive children and lower scores for highly
disruptive children in Year 3.   Higher attendance in the
Family Program was associated with lower aggression
scores for mild/moderately disruptive children. Findings
highlight the importance of matching intervention compo-
nents to the assessed or expressed needs of client sub-
groups. For reprints: Gerald August, Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry   Division, Univ. Minnesota Medical   School,
F256/2B West, 2450 Riverside Ave., Minneapolis, MN
55454
                         ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Barry, L.M., & Messer, J.J. (2003). A practical application
of   self-management for   students   diagnosed   with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity   disorder.    Journal of
Positive Behavior Interventions, 5, 238-248.
Five sixth-grade students diagnosed with attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), taking psycho-stimulants
for treatment of   ADHD symptoms, and enrolled in a
general   education classroom   participated in the study.
Participants were taught self-management techniques to
monitor academic performance, on-task behaviors, and
disruptive behaviors.   A multiple baseline design across
students with intervention withdrawal embedded within
each baseline was used to empirically assess the effect-
iveness of self-management. Self-management associated
with increases of on-task behaviors and academic per-
formance and with a decrease of disruptive behaviors when
compared to other phases.    Implications for   practical
application of the strategy in general education classrooms
are discussed. For reprints:   Leasha Barry, Univ. West
Florida, 11000 University Pkwy 85/189, Pensacola, FL
32514
                        ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Bartanusz, S., & Sulova, L. (2003). Functional analysis of
the communication between the young child and his
father or mother when reading an illustrated book.
European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18,
113-134.
Our research is concerned with the observation of commu-
nication between the child and his parents (mother-baby vs.
father-baby). The children are aged from 30 to 36 months
old. Communication was analysed according to utterances
functions and social aims. 14 French children, 7 boys and
7 girls were filmed with each of their two parents in their
home environment. 5 minutes of verbal interactions were
entirely rewritten and analysed according to categories
adapted from the speech acts theory. The results indicate
that mothers generate more expressive utterances   and
fathers more commissive ones. Mothers also tend to ask
more information requests. The children generate more
assertive utterances with the mothers and are more direc-
tive with the fathers. Concerning parental feedack func-

Abrams,   L.S., &   Gordon,   A.L. (2003).    Self-harm
narratives of urban and suburban young   women.
Affilia, 18, 429-444.
This qualitative study explored the motivations, meanings,
functions, and consequences of self-harm for   young
women in urban and suburban contexts. It found that all
6 participants deliberately harmed themselves in response
to traumas, family stress, and   relationship   problems.
However, the suburban girls connected their self-harm
behaviors to an overall sense of despondency, whereas
the urban girls attributed these to release of unresolved
anger. Key differences between the groups also emerged in
the functions and consequences of their self-harm
behaviors. These findings can increase social workers'
capacity to respond to   intentional self-injury   among
ethnically and socioeconomically diverse populations of
young women. For reprints: Laura Abrams, School of
Social Work, Univ. Minnesota, 105 Peters Hall, 1404
Gortner Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108

                       ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Ahearn, W.H., Clark, K.M., Gardenier, N.C., Chung,
B.I., & Dube, W.V. (2003). Persistence of stereo-
typic behavior: Examining   the effects of external
reinforcers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
36, 439-448.
Basic research has shown that behavioral persistence is
often positively related to rate of reinforcement. This
relation,   expressed in   the   metaphor   of   behavioral
momentum, has potentially important implications for
clinical application.   The current study examined one
prediction of the momentum metaphor for automatically
reinforced behavior. Participants were 3 children who
had been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder
and who engaged in stereotypic behavior maintained by
automatic reinforcement. Results suggested that stereo-
typic behavior was more resistant to disruption following
periods of access to preferred stimuli delivered on a
variable-time schedule than following periods without
access to preferred stimuli. The implications of these
findings for the treatment of automatically reinforced
behavior are discussed. For reprints: William Ahearn,
New   England Ctr. for   Children,    33 Turnpike Rd.,
Southborough, MA 01772
                      ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
August, G.J., Egan, E.A., Realmuto, G.M., & Hektner,
J.M. (2003). Parceling   component   effects of a
multifaceted   prevention   program   for   disruptive
elementary school children. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 31, 515-527.
This   study   examined   predictors   and   outcomes of
attendance in two standard components of a multifaceted
preventive intervention aimed at children with early-onset
disruptive behavior after 3 years of intervention. Mean
rate of attendance in the Family Program, but not the
Summer School Program,   differed by level of child